This study presents an alternative interpretation of language represented in Latin-Romance hybrid documents of early-thirteenth-century Castile based on analysis of local legal documents produced by Nicholaus Martini, a scribe of the city of Burgos.
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Emerging at a moment of aggressive Christian expansion into al-Andalus and the introduction of newly enslaved Muslims into societies where their free co-religionists had already lived for some time, the images should be seen a trenchant visual response that, rather than merely recording what late medieval Iberian slavery “looked like,” leveraged racially charged color symbolism to articulate the cultural, social, and moral differences believed to mark the enslaved in medieval Iberian society. It examines a group of elite manuscripts in which enslaved people consistently are depicted by means of a Black stereotype despite the relative rarity of sub-Saharan African slaves in those kingdoms at this time, positing that these images functioned not literally, but metaphorically and metonymically, to suggest how the state of unfreedom intersected with transculturally dominant ideas about morality, soteriology, and religious and social norms, as well as racial difference. This article asks what medieval images can reveal about the realities of race and slavery in the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile during the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. Finally, we demonstrate that although the descent-based interpretation of “conversos” eventually prevailed, the problem of classifying Christians of Jewish descent continued to haunt political discourses well into the reign of Isabel I and Fernando II (1474–1504). We examine the arguments made by those who sought-or resisted-labeling the descendants of Jews as “conversos” or “neophytes.” Furthermore, we explain how debates over such labels were linked to broader interpretations of the meaning of conversion from Judaism to Christianity. Drawing on a large range of historical sources, we analyze this terminological struggle, while paying special attention to the debates that followed the revolt of Toledo of 1449. Rather than a consistent view of how Jewish converts and their descendants should be classified, contemporary discourses reveal a myriad of options and a deep sense of consciousness about the implications of terminological choices. Capital Punishment in Defense of CreditĦ.This article recovers a fifteenth-century debate over the meaning of the category “conversos.” Departing from the standard account, in which “conversos” is seen as a neutral category designating Jewish ancestry, we demonstrate that in fifteenth-century Castile, the question of “who is a converso?” had a much less certain answer. Th e Scarcity of Money Problem and the Birth of English Political EconomyĤ. Wennerlind guides us through these conversations, toward an understanding of how contemporaries viewed the precariousness of credit and the role of violence-war, enslavement, and executions-in the safeguarding of trust.ġ. Debates about credit engaged some of London’s most prominent turn-of-the-century intellectuals, including Daniel Defoe, John Locke, Isaac Newton, Jonathan Swift and Christopher Wren. He traces how the discourse on credit evolved and responded to the Glorious Revolution, the Scientific Revolution, the founding of the Bank of England, the Great Recoinage, armed conflicts with Louis XIV, the Whig-Tory party wars, the formation of the public sphere, and England’s expanded role in the slave trade. Not only was it precarious and prone to accidents, but it depended on trust, public opinion, and ultimately violence.Ĭarl Wennerlind reconstructs the intellectual context within which the financial revolution was conceived. Yet a number of casualties followed in the wake of this new system of credit. Possessed of a generally circulating credit currency, a modern national debt, and sophisticated financial markets, England developed a fiscal-military state that instilled fear in its foes and facilitated the first industrial revolution. Modern credit, developed during the financial revolution of 1620¬–1720, laid the foundation for England’s political, military, and economic dominance in the eighteenth century.